Crusades

We explore the Crusades, and explain their causes and how they are classified. In addition, we discuss their characteristics and consequences.

What were the Crusades?

Crusades was the name given to a series of military campaigns conducted by Western Europe Christians, particularly from France, the Holy Roman Empire, and England, and spurred by the highest authority of the Catholic Church with Holy See in Rome, the Pope.

These campaigns spanned over nearly two centuries (between 1096 and 1291), and had the objective of regaining political and religious control of the so-called "Holy Land" (Jerusalem and its surroundings), which was under Muslim rule.

While the number of Crusades against the Middle East and North Africa is agreed upon eight, the term was also applied to other wars and political-religious actions, such as the Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula, the persecution of the Albigensians in southern France (declared heretics by the Catholic Church), and confrontations with "pagans" and Muslims in parts of the Baltic and Eastern Europe.

The warriors who participated in these armed contingents were called crusaders because they wore a fabric cross sewn onto their clothing. This marked them as faithful to the mission of the Catholic Church. In return for their efforts, they were granted plenary indulgence, which means they were forgiven for all their past sins.

• See also: Imperialism

Historical context

Background to the crusades

In the mid-11th century, the Seljuk Turks, who practiced Sunni Islam, spread across the Middle East. They conquered Baghdad and extended their control westward. The Byzantine Empire, which upheld the Christian faith, was losing territories in Europe and Asia. This prompted Emperor Romanos IV to confront the Seljuk Turks, who were threatening his rule in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey).

The Byzantine defeat at Manzikert (1071) allowed the Seljuks to conquer Anatolia, Syria, and Palestine, the latter taken from the Fatimids (Shia Muslims who had established a caliphate based in Egypt).

Muslim control over Jerusalem and its surroundings had not previously hindered the coexistence and pilgrimage of Christians seeking to visit the "holy sites", believed to have been the place where Jesus lived. However, Seljuk rule as well as regional conflicts made pilgrimages increasingly perilous. Furthermore, the weakened Byzantine Empire was unable to provide protection to pilgrims.

In this context, the spread of Islam and, in particular of Seljuk dominance approaching the gates of Constantinople (the Byzantine Empire's capital), motivated Emperor Alexios I Komnenos to request military aid, to which the western powers responded willingly.

Call for the Crusades

The Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos' request for military aid led to Pope Urban II's proclamation at the Council of Clermont (France) in 1095. Urban II called on Christians in Europe to journey to the Holy Land to free it from Muslim control, offering those who participated plenary indulgence, that is, the forgiveness of all past sins.

Though Urban II’s appeal was primarily directed at nobles and knights, people from all social classes responded under the rallying cry "God wills it". It is estimated that between 60,000 and 100,000 people mobilized in 1096, motivated by faith, feudal obligations, or the prospect of acquiring land and wealth.

An early, unofficial expedition known as the "People’s Crusade" was led by Peter the Hermit, a French cleric who spread Urban II’s call among peasants and other lower-class groups. These thousands of mostly unarmed or poorly armed men advanced through Europe, looting for supplies and attacking Jewish communities along the way. Upon reaching Anatolia, most were slaughtered or enslaved by the Seljuk Turks.

Origin of the term "Crusades"

The name Crusades is derived from the cross that crusaders wore either embroidered on their uniforms or painted on their shields and other equipment. This symbol publicly demonstrated that the individual had taken the vow of "taking the cross", signifying their commitment to an expedition in defense of the Catholic faith. Thus, the Latin term crucesignatus, which can be translated as "crusader", designated "one signed by the cross".

In the early stages of the Crusades, Christians traveling to the Holy Land, either armed or unarmed, were indistinctly regarded as pilgrims, with the campaigns being broadly referred to as "the journey to Jerusalem", "pilgrimage", or "expedition". Over the course of the 12th century, the distinction between armed warriors and unarmed pilgrims became more pronounced, and both terms "crusaders" (reserved for the warriors) and "Crusade" became of widespread use toward the end of the century. "Crusade" thus evolved to mean both an armed pilgrimage and a holy war.

Causes and motivations for the Crusades

The primary motivation behind the Crusades was to halt the spread of Islam and retake control over the so-called "Holy Land", particularly Jerusalem and other sites in Palestine, believed to have been the places where Jesus had lived, died, and resurrected.

These "holy sites" had been under Islamic rule since the 7th century, being a destination for Christian pilgrims from Europe. However, the conquest by the Seljuk Turks and conflicts in the area in the late 11th century made pilgrimage dangerous, rekindling Christian aspirations to expel Muslims from the region.

Further motivations are also acknowledged by historians:

• The Byzantine emperor's request for help, which triggered the subsequent call for the Crusades, was an appeal for military aid to fight the Seljuk Turks and thus defend the political autonomy of what was left of the empire.
• Pope Urban II's preaching, which called to journey to Jerusalem to reclaim and defend the Holy Land, may also have stemmed from a desire to restore the papacy's primacy over all Christendom, which at that time was divided between the Western Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
• Some participants in the Crusades were driven by economic interests such as obtaining land and wealth, or taking advantage of overland and maritime trade routes. The Fourth Crusade, in particular, took on a largely commercial motivation: Venetian merchants persuaded the Crusaders to attack Christian cities competing with them for commercial supremacy, which led to the capture and plundering of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire.

Major Crusades

• First Crusade. Beginning in 1096 and ending in 1099, it was primarily composed of French and Norman knights who formed contingents directed by leaders authorized by the Pope, including Prince Bohemond of Taranto and Duke Godfrey of Bouillon. It resulted in victory for the crusaders, who crossed Anatolia, conquered Antioch, and finally captured Jerusalem from the Fatimid Muslims. This meant the recovery of a number of territories by the Byzantine Empire and the establishment of four Crusader States (known as the Latin States of the East) in Syria and Palestine. These were: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, and the County of Edessa, which came to be ruled by military leaders of the Crusades.
• Second Crusade. It took place between 1147 and 1149, and was prompted by the fall of the County of Edessa (the first Latin State) at the hands of the Seljuk Turks in 1144. The Christian armies led by King Louis VII of France and Emperor Conrad III of Germany marched across Europe, encouraged by the preaching of Cistercian monk Bernard of Clairvaux. The armies crossed Anatolia, where they faced Turkish attacks. They attempted to capture Damascus in Syria but failed, and withdrew with significant human losses. During the early phase of this Crusade in 1147, the crusaders marching to the East had passed through the Iberian Peninsula, reclaiming Lisbon, Almería, and Tarragona from Muslim control.
• Third Crusade. Lasting between 1189 and 1192, it was known as the "Kings’ Crusade", due to the participation of King Richard I "the Lionheart" of England, King Philip II of France, and Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire. Its objective was to retake Jerusalem, which had fallen to the Sultan of Egypt and Syria, Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub (known as Saladin in the West) following the Battle of Hattin in 1187. Although the crusaders failed to recapture Jerusalem, a series of coastal victories led to the Treaty of Ramla between Richard I and Saladin, in which Richard recognized Muslim control of the city while Saladin agreed to allow Christian pilgrimages.
• Fourth Crusade. Beginning in 1202 and ending in 1204, it was not launched against the Muslims but against other Christians. Initially intended to target Egypt to weaken Muslim control over the Holy Land, financial difficulties forced the crusaders to change their plans. They were persuaded by the Republic of Venice, which had assembled an expensive fleet for the expedition, to take the Christian city of Zara (modern-day Zadar, Croatia), a rival of Venice over the control of the Adriatic. Furthermore, in order to secure commercial supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean, the Venetians convinced the Crusaders to attack Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, whose Emperor Alexius IV had not fulfilled his commitment to finance the original expedition. The crusaders besieged and conquered Constantinople in 1204, looting it for several days. In its place, they established the Latin Empire of Constantinople, which lasted until 1261.

Minor Crusades

• Fifth Crusade. Initiated in 1217 and concluded in 1221, its purpose was to defeat the Ayyubid state in Egypt as a pathway to retake Jerusalem. A large army was assembled under the command of King Andrew II of Hungary and Duke Leopold VI of Austria, called for by Pope Innocent III and his successor, Honorius III. After capturing Damietta, at the mouth of the Nile, the crusaders attempted to advance on Cairo, but were forced to retreat due to Muslim resistance and the flooding of the Nile, which made them abandon their previous conquests.
• Sixth Crusade. Lasting from 1228 to 1229, it was led by Frederick II Hohenstaufen, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Excommunicated by the Pope for his earlier delay in embarking to the Holy Land, Frederick undertook the campaign without papal approval. Internal tensions within Islam allowed Frederick to conduct negotiations with the Sultan of Egypt and Syria, al-Kamil, who was facing political conflicts within his vast territory. Thus, Frederick regained control of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth and other cities while granting Muslims free transit and residence.
• Seventh Crusade. Taking place between 1248 and 1254, it was led by Louis IX of France, after the truce from the Sixth Crusade had expired and Muslims had reconquered Jerusalem in 1244. As happened in the Fifth Crusade, the crusaders were defeated in Egypt and taken prisoners. Louis IX and his troops were later ransomed.
• Eighth Crusade. In 1270, Louis IX tried once again to take Muslim territories. He landed in Tunis, intending to advance toward Egypt, now ruled by the Mamluk Sultan Baibars. However, Louis IX contracted dysentery and died shortly after. Subsequently, Prince Edward of England joined Louis’ troops, leading his own army to Palestine in what some consider to be a Ninth Crusade. However, this too failed, concluding in 1272. Following these defeats, the Crusader States continued to lose territories to the advancing Mamluks, eventually ceasing to exist in 1291. The last crusader stronghold, the island of Arwad, was conquered by the Mamluks in 1302.

The Crusader States

The advance of the First Crusade on Anatolia, Syria, and Palestine led to the establishment of four Christian States whose objective was to secure the conquered territories. These are commonly referred to as the Crusader States or Latin East.

Each of these states came to be ruled by a Crusader leader who had authority over both Christian and Muslim populations. Many Crusaders returned to Europe after fulfilling their vows of visiting the Holy Sepulchre while others chose to stay, submitting to the authority of Christian rulers.

These states were organized under a feudal system: the military leader claimed territories by right of conquest, distributing land and duties among his followers, who, in turn, pledged allegiance to him.

• County of Edessa (1098–1144). It was the first Crusader State. Established by Baldwin of Boulogne in Syria, who later proclaimed himself King of Jerusalem, it was also the first Crusader State to fall to the Seljuk Turks in 1144, an event that triggered the Second Crusade.
• Principality of Antioch (1098–1268). Situated in the south of modern-day Turkey, this state was controlled by Bohemond of Taranto. After being captured and later released by the Muslims, he left his nephew Tancred as regent. The principality faced numerous conflicts and territorial losses until its dissolution in 1268 at the hands of the Mamluks under Sultan Baibars.
• County of Tripoli (1109–1268). The siege of Tripoli in Lebanon was initially led by Raymond of Saint-Gilles, who came to bear the title of Count of Tripoli for conquering neighboring lands. The siege was completed after his death, leading to the establishment of the County of Tripoli. This state survived until 1268, when it fell to the Mamluks.
• Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099–1187). The conquest of Jerusalem was led by Godfrey of Bouillon who managed to defeat the Fatimid Muslims, who in turn had ousted the Seljuk Turks. The immediate result was the massacre of the Muslim and Jewish populations and the capture of prisoners. Godfrey took the title "Protector of the Holy Sepulchre", and upon his death was succeeded by his brother Baldwin as King of Jerusalem. The kingdom was lost to Sultan Saladin in 1187. During the Third Crusade, Christians regained some coastal territories in Palestine, established a base in Acre (modern-day Israel), and founded the Kingdom of Cyprus. Acre eventually fell to the Mamluks in 1291, marking the end of the Crusader States.

The crusaders

The early Crusades summoned people from all social strata and regions in Europe. Some impoverished and marginal groups participated in the so-called "People's Crusade", which lacked papal approval, while others joined official Crusades alongside nobles and knights who were better equipped and trained. From the Second Crusade onward, some kings took on prominent roles by leading these expeditions.

The reasons for participating in the Crusades were manifold. The most apparent was the religious fervor experienced by all social classes in Western Christendom, motivated by the defense of the Holy Land or the promise of plenary indulgence. However, there were further motivations, including the political ambition of nobles seeking to conquer territories, and the economic interests of the lower nobility and lower classes hoping to benefit from looting, plundering, or the prospect of obtaining lands to exploit.

Some simply followed their lords out of fealty (this form of recruitment based on the feudal duties of vassals seems to have become prevalent from the Third Crusade onward). Merchants could profit from the routes on their journey to the Middle East to do business while others were motivated by the idea of receiving noble titles as rewards for accompanying Crusade leaders.

The success of the First Crusade and the settlement of crusaders in Syria and Palestine also led to the establishment of monastic and military orders whose objective was to protect pilgrims and defend the new Christian territories. Thus were born the Knights Templar (1119–1314), the Knights Hospitaller (established in 1113 and known for their control of fortresses like the Krak des Chevaliers in Syria), and the Teutonic Knights (founded in 1190), among others. These warrior monks took monastic vows and engaged in military activities.

The military organization of the crusaders relied on both cavalry and infantry. Units were formed by swearing an oath of fealty to a Crusade leader. Initially, transportation from Europe was predominantly overland, but with the Third Crusade sea travel became more common, supported by ships provided by Italian commercial cities such as Venice and Genoa.

Who was the target of the crusaders?

The Crusades to the Holy Land were directed against Muslim populations. The crusaders' primary objective was to expel the Seljuk Turks from the Holy Land. Toward the end of the 11th century, the Seljuks controlled much of the Middle East, threatening the Byzantine Empire. While the crusaders confronted the Seljuks during the initial Crusades, the siege of Jerusalem in 1099 targeted the Fatimids, who ruled from Egypt and had expelled the Seljuks from the city.

Other Muslim enemies of the crusaders were the Ayyubids, under the Sultan of Egypt and Syria (Saladin and his successors); the Mamluks, with sultans including Baibars I; and the Almoravids, who were defeated by crusaders serving the King of Portugal in the Iberian Peninsula as part of the so-called Reconquista.

The crusaders also fought against Christian populations, particularly within the Byzantine Empire, and engaged in violence against Jewish communities. Other episodes referred to as "Crusades" took place in Europe, being directed against Christian "heretics" such as the war against the Albigensians in southern France, and "pagans" such as the Baltic Crusades.

Consequences of the Crusades

The Crusades had various consequences in Europe and the Middle East, among which were:

• They halted the advance of Islam into the West, preserving Christian supremacy in Europe.
• They strengthened the papacy’s power across the Western world and, for a time, among Eastern Christians. However, the differences between Eastern and Western Christianity deepened, making the separation between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches irreversible.
• They marked the decline of the Byzantine Empire, which ultimately disintegrated in 1453 with the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks.
• They increased Christian presence in parts of the Middle East and other regions in Asia, including the promotion of Franciscan and Dominican missions.
• They reinforced the notion of religious and cultural unity in Christian Western Europe as opposed to the Muslim East while increasing religious intolerance toward Muslims, Jews, and those deemed pagans and heretics.
• They revitalized trade between the East and the West, with new crops and exotic goods entering Europe. The Crusades also facilitated the introduction of Islamic sciences, arts, and philosophy in the West, as well as Greek works preserved by the Byzantine Empire or translated and commentated by Arab scholars (though the Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula had a greater impact on this).
• They impoverished many feudal lords who had abandoned, sold, or mortgaged their lands to journey to the Holy Land while it benefitted merchants in cities and strengthened some royal houses in Europe that accumulated funds through taxes and trade tariffs.
• They asserted the supremacy of major commercial cities like Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, which controlled trade routes with the Middle East.
• They encouraged the formation of religious-military orders, such as the Knights Templar, established to participate in the Crusades and protect pilgrims. Some orders amassed wealth and power, inspiring the creation of similar orders, but at times clashed with ecclesiastical and secular authorities (as happened with the Order of the Knights Templar, which was dissolved in the 14th century).
• They deepened the divisions within Islam and also intensified its differences with Christian authorities, whose actions during the Crusades were condemned.
• They inspired narratives that, for centuries, celebrated the heroism of European kings and nobles at the service of Christianity (in the Christian West) or of leaders who had fought for the defense of Islam, such as Salah al-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub (known in the West as Saladin).
• They spread the concept of religious crusades and "holy war", which influenced subsequent expansions, such as the colonization of the New World.

Apologies for the Crusades

In the year 2000, Pope John Paul II, then leader of the Catholic Church, publicly confessed the "sins of the past" and asked for forgiveness for acts of intolerance and violence committed in the name of the Catholic faith throughout history.

Among the events that prompted this expression of repentance and penance were, though not explicitly named, the crimes of the Inquisition and the massacres perpetrated during the Crusades.

Other crusades

Other wars and episodes of violence were also termed "Crusades", though they were not part of the Catholic effort to reclaim or defend the Holy Land. Notable among these are the following:

• The Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) targeted the Cathars or Albigensians in southern France, who preached a Gnostic Christian doctrine considered heretical by the Catholic Church. The Pope turned to the French crown, initiating a war that ended with the victory of the crusaders under the French king over the County of Toulouse, which sheltered the Albigensians. However, the Cathar movement did not completely disappear and continued to face persecution by the Inquisition.
• The Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula also acquired the characteristics of a Crusade. In 1147, the crusaders heading to the Holy Land received the ecclesiastical call to expel the Muslims from Lisbon, Almería, and Tarragona. The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 received contingents from all of Europe, as Pope Innocent III had proclaimed it a Crusade.
• The Baltic Crusades were led by the Teutonic Knights, a military order founded during the Third Crusade. Beginning in the 13th century, these campaigns targeted pagan populations in the Baltic region. The Teutonic Knights received approval from the Pope as well as from the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire to rule over the conquered lands in Prussia and nearby areas and to enforce Christianization.
• The Crusade of Nicopolis in 1385 gathered a large number of troops from Europe at the request of King Sigismund of Hungary, and had the objective of halting the Ottoman Turks' advance on Europe. The decisive battle occurred in 1396, resulting in defeat for the Christians under the forces of Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I.
• The so-called "Children's Crusade" (1212) was neither a real Crusade nor was it predominantly composed of children. It was a popular movement purportedly inspired by a young German shepherd who gathered a considerable number of followers (among which were children and adolescents, but also poor or marginal adults). Though the objective allegedly was to reach the Holy Land from Genoa, the participants never managed to leave Europe. Other similar movements might have merged with this one. Nevertheless, accounts of this mobilization and those who inspired it seem to blend history and legend.

Explore next:

• Feudalism
• Modernity
• Sumerians
• Roman Empire