Modernity

We explore modernity and describe its characteristics. In addition, we discuss the changes it brought about from the 15th century onward.

What is modernity?

Modernity is a set of social and intellectual processes that began in Europe in the 15th century in the wake of the Renaissance, marking the end of the Middle Ages.

Alongside individualism, the scientific method, and changes in thought (which emphasized rationality), there were political transformations that profoundly altered state institutions and redrew political and economic boundaries.

Although the changes brought about by modernity occurred gradually, they permeated social life, work, inhabited space, power relations, aesthetic experiences, and more.

• See also: Postmodernism

Characteristics of modernity

• Modernity rose as a social and intellectual phenomenon in Western Europe in the 15th century. It coincided with the beginning of the early modern period, but later spread throughout the world.
• From an intellectual viewpoint, modernity signified discarding religious orthodoxy as a way to understand the universe and interact with the world, replacing it with reason, logic, and the scientific method.
• The emphasis of modernity on the critical and rational individual was reflected in the fields of thought and art, which abandoned theocentrism in favor of anthropocentrism as evidenced in humanism and the Renaissance. The effects of the Protestant Reformation may also have contributed to the focus on the individual.
• Politically, modernity brought about the emergence of nation-states and the development of political ideologies that promoted the separation of powers, such as liberalism.
• Modernity was linked to transoceanic expansion, innovations in communication and transportation, and the establishment of a global economy based on trade and colonialism. This process spurred the development of an industrial society in which the social inequalities of capitalism became evident, particularly from the 19th century onward.
• Starting in the mid-20th century, the intellectual foundations of modernity became disputed by the movement known as postmodernism.

Historical background

The term "modernity" refers to a series of events and facts that began in the 15th century in Western Europe and which later spread to the rest of the world. Its rise coincides with the beginning of the early modern period, which some historians date to the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 while others place it with Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas in 1492.

In any case, certain defining characteristics of modernity have their roots in the late Middle Ages (such as humanism) whereas others extend into the Contemporary Era (like the emphasis on reason and the scientific method). In the mid-20th century, western modern thought began to be questioned by proponents of the so-called postmodernism.

Modern thought

Reason and logic

Reason as opposed to religion is at the heart of modern thought, as is eloquently expressed in the ideas of the Enlightenment. Starting in the early modern period, religion ceased to be the sole discourse for explaining the world. Science was established as a method to understand natural and human phenomena.

Myth was replaced by logic, affecting not only philosophy and science but also politics and economics. In addition, an ideal of progress was embraced, which continued into the 20th century.

Subjectivity, the foundation of reason, became central in modern thought. Individual reflection made possible critique and self-realization, and fostered personal responsibility. This influenced the emergence of liberal thought and new forms of political organization implemented from the late 18th century onward (particularly republican democracies).

The break with tradition

Initially, modernity was characterized by a desire to break with the past, embodied in tradition. In the fields of art and thought, inspiration was sought not in the recent past (the Middle Ages) but in the distant past (antiquity). This revival of the Greco-Roman classical culture is known as the Renaissance, and is clearly made evident in art.

On the other hand, modernity is typically characterized by an attraction for innovation and discovery. The scientific method is one of the most eloquent expressions of this disruptive tendency that emphasizes observation, logic, and experimentation over authority and tradition (for example, against ecclesiastical orthodoxy).

The Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation was a Christian religious movement that began in Germany during the 16th century with theologian Martin Luther, and which had other exponents and forms across Europe. The Catholic Church was divided by criticism from various priests and thinkers, particularly over the absolute authority of the Pope and the corruption linked to the sale of indulgences.

This movement advocated for a return to early Christianity, and claimed that salvation depended solely on faith and personal repentance. For this reason, it is believed to have contributed to the secularization process driven by humanism and the scientific method, both hallmarks of modernity focused on the individual as a critical and rational being.

Political organization

Nation-States

Starting in the early modern period, political-territorial structures similar to those that exist today began to take shape in Europe. A nation-state comprises:

• A defined territory.
• A stable population (despite migrations).
• A bureaucracy.
• A centralized government.

The early development of modern states occurred in Europe as part of the decline of the feudal system, which had dominated the Middle Ages.

The European order based on national states largely emerged from the Peace of Westphalia signed in 1648, which ended the Thirty Years' War. Through this treaty, several European governments recognized the principles of territorial sovereignty. Later, the idea of national sovereignty was strengthened by liberal thought and historical events such as the French Revolution.

Separation of powers

Government in feudal monarchies was in the hands of a single ruler who concentrated all the power. This power was legitimized by lineage, military strength, or the Church.

Modernity brought about the separation of powers within the State in accordance with the political principles of the Enlightenment and liberalism. Today, this separation is upheld in most state societies, encompassing:

• The executive power. It designs and introduces policies and enforces laws.
• The legislative power. It debates and enacts laws to be enforced by the executive power.
• The judicial power. It dispenses justice through the application of laws and legal norms.

Bureaucracy

The administration of modern States increasingly came to depend on a logic supported by a large workforce, giving rise to the so-called “bureaucracy”. Those who form part of this system work in public entities responsible for the daily functions of the State. In its early stages, bureaucracies were often composed of members of the bourgeoisie.

Modern economy

Conquest of the Americas and colonialism

The European discovery and the subsequent colonization of the Americas, whose lands were inhabited by indigenous populations, were both triggers and symptoms of modernity. The voyage to the Americas was a fortuitous event resulting from the scientific calculation that the Earth was spherical (a concept dating back to classical antiquity).

It was also motivated by commercial expansion—a typical need of an emerging economic model that gave way to the globalization of the economy and capitalism.

The arrival at a continent that was unknown until then allowed Europeans to exploit new resources and labor (often slave labor) and to establish colonies. The Atlantic trade route along with other transoceanic exploration voyages led to the expansion of trade and the spread of cultural and political patterns.

Innovations in communication and transportation in the late early modern period and early Contemporary Era facilitated the accumulation and circulation of wealth. This benefited the industrial and commercial bourgeoisies of the major European powers, which subsequently caused economic development as well as new forms of social inequality in other parts of the world.

Industrial society

The shift from a rural to an industrial society was gradual, but no less decisive. The Industrial Revolution (which began in the late 18th and early 19th centuries) accelerated this process that reshaped the global economy and the physiognomy of cities.

The type of society that rose with modernity had the following characteristics:

• Increased production through the organization and division of labor.
• The rise of factories where labor was organized.
• The invention and manufacture of machines replacing hand labor. This laid the groundwork for technological innovations aimed at increasing productivity, a trend that continues today as scientific and technological advancements are applied to production.
• The rise of a new social class, wage laborers, and the consolidation of an industrial bourgeoisie.

The industrial society required concentrated labor into factories. Cities became hubs for production while at the same time they served as the primary centers for the consumption of goods, services, and energy. These urban centers, in turn, depended on rural areas for food supply.

Social inequalities became evident in major industrial cities in the 19th century, contributing to the rise of political movements that opposed the social consequences of capitalism (especially socialism).

Explore next:

• Rationalism
• Imperialism
• Second Industrial Revolution

References

• "Las cuatro partes del mundo. Historia de una mundialización" Fondo de Cultura Económica. Gruzinski, S. (2011).
• "The Making of the West. Peoples and Cultures." Hunt, L., Martin, T. R., Rosenwein, B. H. & Smith, B. G. (2016). 5th edition. Bedford/St. Martin’s.
• "Modernity" Encyclopedia Britannica. Snyder, S. L. (2016).