Classical antiquity

We explore Classical antiquity, and explain its time periods. In addition, we discuss its characteristics and end.

What is Classical antiquity?

"Classical antiquity" or "Classical age" is a historical period spanning from Early antiquity (when the earliest civilizations emerged in the Ancient Near East) to Late antiquity (the transition to the Middle Ages).

This is the period when Greco-Roman culture flourished, stretching across the Mediterranean basin and the shores of the Near East. It covers the period of maximum splendor of Greek civilization’s artistic, philosophical, architectural, and economic achievements, as well as the Hellenistic Period, during which Greek culture spread throughout the East and was in turn influenced by local cultures.

In addition, this period saw the rise of Roman culture on the Italian Peninsula and its subsequent rule over the Mediterranean region and the Near East.

Both civilizations stand as fundamental pillars of modern Western culture, having laid the foundations for institutions, practices, and human thought that continued to shape European societies for centuries.

• See also: Modernity

Timeline of Classical antiquity

Classical antiquity starts in the 5th century BC with the end of the war between the city-states of Ancient Greece and the Persian Empire. The Greek armies achieved victory over the Persian invaders, fostering a new sense of cultural greatness among its inhabitants.

Depending on the source, the beginning of this period may be placed earlier, in the 8th century BC, with the legendary founding of Rome in 753 BC.

Classical antiquity ends in the 5th century AD, with the Christianization of the Western Roman Empire, its collapse, and eventual dissolution brought about by the invasions of Germanic peoples from northern and eastern Europe. This event marks the beginning of the Middle Ages.

Classical Greece (from 510 to 330 BC)

Between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, the Greek city-states (polis) flourished, experiencing cultural growth and economic wealth. Thebes, Athens, Corinth, Miletus, and Sparta were known for their artistic, architectural, and military achievements. In addition, these cities advanced mathematics, philosophy, and the study of nature. In Athens, the period between 490 and 404 BC is referred to as the Golden Age, due to its cultural, political, and economic splendor.

The main features of Greek splendor were the following:

• Philosophy. Philosophy as a discipline emerged in the 6th century BC, reaching its peak during the 5th century BC. Philosophers explored questions about the origin of life and the laws of nature, emphasizing rational thought as a means to understand the world they lived in. Plato and Aristotle are prominent figures of Classical Greek philosophy.
• Study of nature. Other philosophers, such as Heraclitus, Zeno, Anaxagoras, Parmenides, and Empedocles, delved into topics related to nature, like astronomy and botany.
• Medicine. Significant advances in medicine were made during this period, with major contributions from Alcmaeon and Hippocrates, who studied the human body.
• Art. The Classical Period witnessed great encouragement of the arts. Cities like Athens became centers for artistic development, excelling in both visual arts (like sculpture) and performing arts (like the theater). The architecture of Phidias and the dramatic works of Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides are notable examples.
• Politics. Each city-state or polis maintained its political independence and established unique government systems. Sparta, for example, had an aristocratic government made up of temporary and lifelong magistracies. Athens, in turn, saw the rise of the first democratic government in history, involving citizen participation in political decision-making.

During the second half of the 5th century BC, the rivalry between Athens and Sparta (the two most powerful city-states) grew, leading to the formation of opposing coalitions: the Delian League, led by Athens, and the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta. Other Greek city-states aligned with one side or the other, and this culminated in the Peloponnesian War, which started in 431 BC. Despite Sparta's eventual victory and the fall of the Delian League around 404 BC, the prolonged war severely weakened all the city-states involved in the conflict.

Hellenistic Period (from 330 to 146 BC)

Macedonia, situated in northern Greece, was a Greek kingdom that began its military expansion in the mid-4th century BC. The campaigns of Philip II were successful thanks to innovative military tactics that combined cavalry and infantry. In 338 BC, the Macedonians defeated the Athenians at the Battle of Chaeronea, asserting dominance over the region. Greek city-states lost their autonomy and came under the control of the League of Corinth, led by the Macedonians.

In 336 BC, Alexander the Great, son of Philip II, ascended to the throne and continued his father’s expansionist campaigns. Within a decade, he managed to conquer vast territories, building the largest empire in Ancient history, which spanned Greece, Egypt, Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Central Asia (up to the Indus River).

However, following Alexander's death, disputes over succession led to the empire's fragmentation into various kingdoms. Over time, their borders were redrawn due to military and political struggles.

Around the 1st century BC, the Roman Republic began its territorial expansion and eventually conquered the Greek kingdoms, which were weakened by internal disputes and constant warfare.

This period was marked by the emergence of a new culture. Through military conquests, the Macedonians spread Greek culture across Asia and Egypt. In turn, Greek culture was influenced by Eastern beliefs, values, and styles. The result was the development of Hellenistic culture, characterized by:

• Language. During this period, koiné consolidated as the dominant language. It was a Greek dialect blended with various local languages that served as a lingua franca, i.e. a language understood by all which facilitated communication between different peoples.
• Culture and patronage. Cities like Alexandria, Pergamon, and Antioch gained prominence, akin to the earlier importance of Athens, Thebes, and Sparta. Hellenistic cities were renowned cultural urban centers. Their rulers promoted the establishment of educational institutions and libraries, fostering the arts. Patronage played a key cultural role, with noble elites supporting philosophers and scholars. In this way, they contributed to advancements in mathematics, geography, medicine, philosophy, and physics.
• Religious syncretism. During the Hellenistic Period, local cults from the East (such as those of Serapis, Isis, or Cybele) blended with the classical Greek pantheon and mythology, creating a fusion of religious traditions in the various kingdoms.

Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome was a civilization that settled on the Italian Peninsula and conquered much of Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. Its history is typically divided into three periods, based on its form of government: Monarchy (753-509 BC), Republic (509-27 BC), and Empire (27 BC-476 AD).

The last century of the Republican Period and the early years of the Imperial Period are regarded as the pinnacle of Roman civilization, during which Rome emerged as the dominant power in the region.

During the Roman Republic, the Roman system of government was characterized by the division of public functions among various officials and institutions: the Senate, the Assembly, and magistrates (or "officials"). In contrast, during the Roman Empire, administrative, political, military, and religious power came under the control of a single emperor.

Throughout its golden age, Roman culture excelled in disciplines as diverse as literature, architecture, philosophy, and the visual arts. The works from this period became paradigms for subsequent artists and thinkers. Many elements of Roman culture survived the fall of the empire, and continued to shape the ideals, values, and artistic styles of modern Western culture.

The main features of Classical Roman culture were:

• Art and Architecture. The Romans developed a distinctive style, influenced by both the Etruscans and the Greeks. From the Etruscans they adopted the arch and the vault as essential elements of their architecture. In turn, Roman designs for columns and the use of statues in temples and public buildings were inspired by the Greeks.
• Monumental works. Emperors commissioned large-scale public works across the empire, including monuments, aqueducts, sewer systems, roads, and public baths. The monumental nature of some temples and public spaces aimed to demonstrate Roman supremacy and magnificence to other peoples. Examples include massive amphitheaters, triumphal arches, and basilicas. The ruins of some of these great structures can still be seen today, such as the Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek (Lebanon), the Arch of Caracalla (Morocco), the Aqueduct of Segovia (Spain), and the Roman Forum (Italy).
• Roman law. Relations between the citizens and the state were regulated by detailed written documents, which led to the notion of law. Over time, codifications of the rules, laws, and legal principles were made, forming what is now known as Roman law. This legal system became one of the main sources of modern legal systems.
• Philosophy. Roman philosophers were deeply influenced by their Greek predecessors. The Romans embraced two major philosophical schools: Stoicism and Epicureanism. Stoics like Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius sought inner peace and virtue, fundamental principles of ethics, through philosophical reasoning. Epicureans, on the other hand, held that philosophy’s practical purpose was the pursuit of happiness, advocating hedonism—the enjoyment of physical pleasures.
• Language. With territorial expansion and the spread of Roman culture, Latin became a dominant language across the region. After the fall of the empire, the blend of Latin with other languages (many of Germanic origin) led to the development of modern languages including Spanish, French, Italian, Galician, Romanian, and Portuguese, among others.
• Literature. Classical Roman poets such as Virgil (Aeneid, Eclogues, Georgics), Ovid (Metamorphoses, The Art of Love), and Horace (Odes, Epodes, Ars Poetica) witnessed the end of the Republican Period and the rise of the empire. Roman nobles continued the Hellenistic tradition of patronage, commissioning literary works from poets and supporting them financially.
• Historical studies. Authors of Classical Rome, such as Livy, Suetonius, and Tacitus, chronicled the events of their time. They left a fundamental and enduring legacy for subsequent scholars and historians.

Timeline of Classical Antiquity

• 5th Century BC

• Greco-Persian Wars (Greece vs. Persia): 499–449 BC
• Peloponnesian War (Athens vs. Sparta): 431–404 BC

• 4th Century BC

• Corinthian War (Sparta vs. Athens, Argos, Corinth, etc.): 395–387 BC
• Start of the Macedonian invasion: 346 BC
• Death of Alexander the Great: 323 BC
• Division of Macedonia into three kingdoms: starting 301 BC

• 3rd Century BC

• Rome conquers the Samnites, Etruscans, and Gauls: 280–275 BC
• Beginning of the Punic Wars: 264 BC
• Beginning of the Macedonian Wars: 214 BC

• 2nd Century BC

• End of the Macedonian Wars: 148 BC
• End of the Punic Wars: 146 BC
• Syrian Wars (192–188 BC), Rome conquers Asia Minor.

• 1st Century BC

• Foundation of the Roman Empire (27 BC)
• Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 BC–69 AD)

• 1st Century AD

• Flavian Dynasty (69–96 AD)
• Antonine Dynasty (96–180 AD)

• 2nd Century AD

• The Roman Empire reaches its greatest territorial extent: 117 AD
• Severan Dynasty: 193–235 AD

• 3rd Century AD

• Crisis of the Third Century: 235–284 AD
• Division of the Roman Empire into two parts: 285 AD
• Division of the Roman Empire into four parts (Tetrarchy): 293 AD

• 4th Century AD

• Christianity becomes the official religion of the Roman Empire: 380 AD
• Beginning of the Germanic invasions: 386 AD
• Final division of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern empires: 395 AD

• 5th Century AD

• Dissolution of the Western Roman Empire caused by invasions from Germanic tribes: 406–476 AD

Explore next:

• Persian Empire
• Byzantine Empire
• Babylonian civilization