Pre-Columbian cultures

We explore pre-Columbian cultures, and explain their characteristics and the contributions they made. In addition, we discuss their political structure, architecture, and art.

What were pre-Columbian cultures?

Pre-Columbian cultures were the civilizations inhabiting the Americas prior to European colonization. Colonization started on October 12, 1492, with the arrival of Christopher Columbus, who established the first Spanish colony on the American continent.

Columbus arrived in the modern-day territories of Cuba, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic, believing he had reached India, in the Old World. For this reason, when he met the natives he called them “Indians”.

A large number of cultures populated the Americas in pre-Columbian times, the most prominent of which developed major civilizations, such as the Aztecs in Mesoamerica, the Maya in the Yucatán Peninsula, and the Incas in the Central Andes.

Pre-Columbian cultures were highly heterogeneous, featuring various forms of social organization. Some established empires with complex political and social systems, and built houses, monuments, and temples. They were characterized by advanced political, economic, religious, and social systems, and had extensive knowledge of astronomy, architecture, mathematics, and agriculture.

Other civilizations had a nomadic or semi-sedentary lifestyle, and were hunter-gatherers. These societies proved to be the most difficult for European colonizers to dominate following the conquest of the Americas.

• See also: Modernity

Characteristics of pre-Columbian cultures

Though pre-Columbian cultures were diverse, they shared several common characteristics:

• Knowledge of agriculture. Many pre-Columbian cultures developed complex agricultural systems, including the creation of terrace farming, irrigation techniques, and chinampas (agricultural islands).
• Knowledge of architecture. A number of pre-Columbian cultures built urban settlements, cities, and monumental works. The Incas, Maya, and Aztecs are noted for their monumental temples.
• Centralized political systems. Each society had a unique political structure. Some formed theocratic states, others were organized under systems of chiefdoms, and there were cases of centralized empires that subjugated neighboring peoples.
• Economic systems. In some cultures, the development of agriculture made it possible to supply large urban settlements, and enabled trade with neighboring populations. In others, subsistence economies were based on hunting and gathering, and exchanges with neighboring communities.
• Social class systems. In some pre-Columbian cultures, societies were marked by social stratification, with a clear division between social classes and hierarchies.
• Worship of gods. While religious beliefs varied among the different cultures, all were polytheistic, i.e. they worshipped multiple gods. Rituals and sacrifices to the gods were common. Pre-Columbian cultures believed that the gods controlled natural phenomena such as rain and harvests.

Major pre-Columbian cultures

Advances in archaeology have made it possible to identify hundreds of pre-Columbian cultures inhabiting the Americas before the Spanish colonization. Among the most prominent were:

• Olmec (1500–400 BC). They lived along the Gulf Coast of Mexico. They are best known for the construction of colossal stone-carved heads, the invention of a calendar, and the earliest evidence of a writing system. Their culture influenced subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations.
• Aztecs or Mexica (1325–1521 AD). They populated the Valley of Mexico, and founded the city of Tenochtitlán. They stood out for building grand palaces, temples, and markets. Through military alliances and warfare, they expanded their territory and power until the Spanish conquest led by Hernán Cortés.
• Maya (2000 BC–1697 AD). They inhabited southeastern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. They excelled in mathematics and astronomy, and developed a hieroglyphic writing system. They are also known for the construction of large stepped pyramids.
• Incas (1438–1533 AD). They occupied the Andean region of present-day Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina and Chile. Known for their military prowess, they established the largest civilization by territory in the Americas. They built an extensive road network of thousands of miles across the mountains, and developed an advanced agricultural system.
• Moche (100–800 AD). They inhabited the northern coast of modern-day Peru. They are best known for their sophisticated ceramics and complex irrigation systems in agriculture. They also built monumental ceremonial structures decorated with iconography representing daily life and religious rituals.
• Toltecs (900–1168 AD). They populated the Mexican Plateau, and are believed to have founded the city of Tula. They were known for their militarism and distinctive art, which includes warrior sculptures and feathered serpents.
• Teotihuacanos (100–750 AD). They inhabited the Valley of Mexico. They are noted for building the great city of Teotihuacán, home to the monumental pyramids of the Sun and the Moon.
• Chimú (900–1470 AD). They inhabited the northern coast of Peru. They are best known for building the large adobe city of Chan Chan. Skilled in agriculture and fishing, they developed irrigation systems to cultivate the coastal region.

Pre-Columbian political organization

Among the various pre-Columbian cultures, the political organization of the following civilizations stands out:

• Aztecs. They established a monarchical system of government, though it was not transmitted through bloodline. The position was designated by a supreme council represented by the nobility, which comprised a minority of the population. They were notable for their extensive military prowess, thanks to which they conquered territories and exercised power over farmers, commoners, and slaves, that is, most of the population.
• Maya. Their government was monarchical and theocratic, i.e. centered on religious beliefs. Priests were part of the ruling nobility, alongside a supreme ruler who assumed the position through inheritance or bloodline. The Maya established multiple independent states.
• Incas. Their government was monarchical and theocratic. The Inca king was considered the son of the sun god, and the nobility concentrated military, civil, and religious power.

Architecture of pre-Columbian cultures

Among the main architectural works of the major pre-Columbian cultures, the following stand out:

• San Lorenzo Archaeological Site. Located in Veracruz, Mexico, it is one of the oldest and most significant sites of the Olmec civilization, dating back to approximately 1200-900 BC. It is famous for its colossal stone heads, which can weigh up to 20 tons. Considered one of the most important ceremonial and political centers of the Olmec, San Lorenzo is notable for its artistic and sculptural sophistication.
• Temple of Chichen Itzá. Situated in Yucatán, Mexico, it was built by the Maya between 600 and 1200 AD. Its most famous structure is the Temple of Kukulkán, also known as El Castillo. This temple is renowned for its architecture, which reflects the Maya's advanced astronomical knowledge. During equinoxes, shadows create the illusion of a serpent descending the stairs.
• Ceremonial Center of Calixtlahuaca. Located in the State of Mexico, Mexico, it was an important ceremonial and political center of the Matlatzinca culture, flourishing between the 12th and 15th centuries AD. It features a circular temple dedicated to Quetzalcóatl, which reflects Toltec influences. The site has numerous buildings and sculptures that manifest the sophistication of this pre-Hispanic culture.
• City of Machu Picchu. It is an ancient Inca citadel situated in the Cusco region, Peru, dating back to around 1450 AD. It is famous for its dry-stone architecture, which includes temples, palaces, and agricultural terraces. Its location in the Andes Mountains and its construction reveal advanced engineering and astronomical knowledge, making it one of the most renowned and visited archaeological sites in the world.
• Pyramids of the Sun and Moon. Located in Teotihuacán, State of Mexico, they were built by the Teotihuacán culture between 100 and 650 AD. The Pyramid of the Sun is one of the largest structures in Mesoamerica, being astronomically aligned with the movement of the Sun. The Pyramid of the Moon, slightly smaller, sits at the end of the Avenue of the Dead, and serves as an important ceremonial center.
• Temple of the Masks. Located in Kohunlich, Quintana Roo, Mexico, it was built by the Maya between 250 and 600 AD. It is notable for its large stucco masks representing solar deities. These sculptures, originally painted in vivid colors, reflect the importance of solar worship in Maya culture. Kohunlich was a major ceremonial and administrative center in the region.
• City of Chan Chan. Located in La Libertad, Peru, and dating back to 900-1470 AD, it was the capital of the Chimú Kingdom. It is the largest adobe city in the Americas, known for its vast palaces, temples and walls adorned with geometric pattern friezes and marine animals. Chan Chan reflects the political organization and advanced engineering of the Chimú.
• Nazca Aqueducts. Situated in the Ica region, Peru, these aqueducts, known as "puquios", were built by the Nazca civilization between 200 and 600 AD. They consisted of a network of underground canals that supplied water to the region, enabling agriculture in an extremely arid region. The aqueducts are testament to the advanced hydraulic engineering of the Nazca people.

Pre-Columbian art

Pre-Columbian art manifests the great diversity of the cultures of the Americas. One of its most important features is religious and ceremonial symbolism, made evident in the representations of gods, rituals, and mythological scenes. Another key aspect is the stylized representation of nature, where plants, animals, and humans are depicted in a realistic manner, yet with an abstract and geometric style.

The materials and techniques used in pre-Columbian art were manifold, ranging from stone and clay sculpture to ceramics, metalworking, weaving, and mural painting. Various cultures created terracotta figurines, often depicting women and making reference to fertility rites.

Many pre-Columbian civilizations produced monumental art, including pyramids, temples, sculptures, and architectural monuments. These works can still be admired at sites such as Teotihuacán, Tikal, Machu Picchu, and Chichén Itzá. Notable examples of pre-Columbian art include the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacán, La Mojarra Stela 25 of the Zapotec culture, the Olmec colossal heads, and Chimú metalworks.

Contributions of pre-Columbian cultures

Among the main contributions of pre-Columbian cultures, the following stand out:

• Calendar. Pre-Columbian calendars, such as the Maya and Aztec, were complex timekeeping systems that combined lunar, solar, and planetary cycles. These calendars ruled agricultural and ceremonial activities, and are proof of the advanced astronomical and cosmological knowledge of pre-Columbian cultures.
• Writing. Pre-Columbian writing systems reflect the diversity and intellectual sophistication of these civilizations. From the complex Maya glyphs used to record historical and ritual information to the pictographic systems of the Aztecs and Zapotecs, these scripts provide insight into the daily life, religion, and history of the ancient societies of the Americas.
• Architecture. Pre-Columbian architecture was remarkable for its scale, engineering, and symbolism. From the towering Maya and Aztec pyramids to the adobe cities of the Chimú, these structures served as religious and political centers, reflecting the worldview and cultural complexity of these civilizations.
• Science. Pre-Columbian science spanned a wide range of disciplines, from astronomy to medicine and engineering. These civilizations developed advanced knowledge of the cosmos (e.g., the accurate calendars of the Maya), architectural engineering (e.g., Incan irrigation systems), and mathematics (e.g., the Maya vigesimal system).
• Medicine. Pre-Columbian medicine was based on the observation of nature and the human body. Their extensive medical knowledge included the herbal medicine practices of the Aztecs and Maya, and surgical techniques such as trepanation (cranial surgery) developed by the Incas.

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