Hellenistic Period

We explore the Hellenistic Period, and explain its origin and major events. In addition, we discuss its characteristics, science, and art.

What was the Hellenistic Period?

The Hellenistic Period, or Hellenism, is the name given to the period in Ancient History spanning from the death of Alexander the Great, in 323 BC, to the conquest of the Eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor by the Roman Republic, in 31 BC.

This period was marked by the fragmentation of Alexander's empire and the emergence of various independent kingdoms in Greece, Egypt, Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Central Asia. The fusion of Greek culture and Eastern cultures resulted in the creation of a new type of culture, influenced by traditions of diverse origins. During this period, art, philosophy, and applied science flourished due to the encouragement and patronage of artists and scholars in various kingdoms.

• See also: Postclassic Period

Characteristics of the Hellenistic Period

The Hellenistic Period was characterized by:

• The political fragmentation of Alexander's empire.
• The spread of Greek cultural elements across Asia Minor and the Near East.
• The emergence of new cities as political and cultural centers of the ancient world.
• The formation of new kingdoms under the rule of the Antigonid, Ptolemaic, and Seleucid dynasties.
• The development of religious syncretism, which blended Greek beliefs and myths with Eastern cults and customs.

Origin of the term "Hellenistic"

The term "Hellenistic" was first used by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen in his History of Hellenism (1836). "Hellenistic" derives from "Hellene", the term used by the ancient Greeks to make reference to their cultural identity.

Droysen employed this concept to refer to the historical process through which the Greek language and culture spread to the populations of the Near East. Chronologically, this process spanned from the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC) to the fall of the last Hellenistic kingdom into Roman hands (31 BC). Geographically, it encompassed the Mediterranean world inhabited by the ancient Greeks and the territories conquered by Alexander the Great, which were subsequently Hellenized: Asia Minor, Egypt, and the Near East (from the Levant to the Indus River).

Background

Between 336 and 323 BC, Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia, built an empire that, for the first time, encompassed the principal civilizations of the ancient world. Through a series of military campaigns, he conquered the Greek world, Egypt, the Phoenician cities of the Levant, Babylon, and the Asian Central plateau up to the Indus River.

During his reign, Alexander allowed conquered peoples to retain their gods, culture, and traditions; but at the same time, he implemented a policy intended to merge these cultures. He incorporated Persian soldiers and officers into his armies, and encouraged marriages between Macedonian nobles and local elites.

In 323 BC, Alexander fell gravely ill and died shortly after, leaving no clear line of succession and his vast empire unorganized. Following his death, the Macedonian, Egyptian, and Persian generals who had been his closest collaborators clashed over succession, and consequently, the empire's disintegration began.

Political organization in the Hellenistic Period

Upon the death of Alexander the Great, the issue of succession arose, along with the difficulty of organizing, managing, and integrating such a vast empire.

Initially, the Diadochi (Macedonian generals) and the army supported the joint appointment of Alexander IV (Alexander the Great's newborn son) and Philip III (Alexander's half-brother, who had mental disabilities) as rulers, under the regency of close collaborators of the royal family.

However, in practice, this group held no real power. Over time, the personal ambitions of many of the Diadochi led to internal wars over the control of the empire.

By 281 BC, internal unity had disappeared. In its place, a number of independent states were established:

• Macedonia, which also controlled part of the Greek cities and became the seat of the Antigonid dynasty.
• Egypt, with its capital in Alexandria, under the Ptolemaic dynasty.
• Seleucid Empire, encompassing the territories of the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Central Asia, with Antioch as its capital.

In addition, smaller kingdoms such as Pergamon in Anatolia, Armenia, and Cappadocia were created.

In the Hellenistic kingdoms, there were no clear rules of succession, and power was achieved through force and personal assertion. Consequently, conflicts between throne contenders were frequent, and borders constantly redrawn.

When the Roman Republic began its territorial expansion eastward, it encountered Hellenistic kingdoms weakened by internal disputes and ongoing wars with neighboring states.

Hellenistic culture

During the reign of Alexander the Great, Greek culture spread and was in turn influenced by the different cultures annexed to the empire. This fusion of eastern and western elements led to the emergence of a hybrid culture known as Hellenism or Hellenistic culture.

The defining characteristics of Hellenistic culture were:

• Religious Syncretism. Hellenistic religion was syncretic. The classical Greek pantheon was blended and coexisted with eastern deities such as Tyche, Serapis, Isis, and Cybele.
• Promotion of the sciences. The various kingdoms, particularly Ptolemaic Egypt, supported the study and advancement of science through patronage. Notable figures from this period include Eratosthenes (mathematician and geographer who pioneered scientific cartography and calculated Earth's circumference), Ctesibius (physicist, pioneer in ballistics), Herophilos and Erasistratus (anatomists who explored the nervous, optical, and reproductive systems).
• Literature. Literary scholarship as well as the critical study of the Greek language and literature deepened. From this period date the works of Callimachus, Zenodotus and Aristarchus, who established canonical editions of Homer and other poets, which continued to be studied for centuries.
• Visual arts. Hellenistic art combined innovation with the classical tradition. It emphasized diversity and experimentation. Hellenistic sculptors perfected the idealized human figure from the Classical Greek period while also producing realistic depictions of individuals of all ages, gender, and social status. There was a deep interest in the portrayal of the individual as a unique and special subject. One notable aspect from this period was the production of thousands of terracotta figurines, crafted with techniques and materials that made them accessible to a wide segment of the population
• New cultural capitals. The Egyptian Ptolemaic dynasty showed its intent to make Alexandria the cultural center of the Greek world. Various rulers and their courts provided patronage to scholars, promoted the arts, and set up cultural institutions. Among these was a research center known as the Museum (so called because it was dedicated to the nine Muses, divine patrons of the arts) and a vast library that aspired to house copies of all books written in Greek. The Library of Alexandria is believed to have held 700,000 papyrus scrolls. Other important cities for their cultural institutions were Athens, Antioch, and Rhodes.

Explore next:

• Classical antiquity
• Byzantine Empire
• Modernity