History

We explain what history is, and discuss its branches and auxiliary sciences. In addition, we describe its characteristics, time periods, and the “end of history”.

What is history?

History is the branch of the social sciences concerned with the study of the human past, both recent and distant, grounded in the analysis of different source materials.

Historical studies are conducted following a scientific method (called the "historical method") agreed upon by experts. However, historians cannot recount the past exactly as it was; their studies are reconstructions that, when examined from the present time, may be interpreted in different ways.

For this reason, over the years, various schools of thought as well as different approaches of historical interpretation have emerged, differing in their methodologies, objects of study, research fields, and interpretation standards.

The word "history" derives from ancient Greek meaning "inquiry" or "information", which in turn evolved from histōr meaning "wise man", "witness", or "judge".

• See also: Modernity

Meanings of the word "history"

The term "history" has numerous meanings, not all of which pertain to the science that studies the past. In everyday language, for instance, the word "history" may be used to refer to a real or imaginary narrative or to recount specific events, as in the case of a "medical history" in medicine.

Conversely, the term may be used to refer to the social science concerned with the narrative of past events. In this sense, the word “History” is capitalized. Historians are specialists in the field of history who research, interpret, and provide explanations about the past of different societies.

The work of History

History specialists, also known as historians, interpret the past from their own present. This means that their view of the past is influenced and shaped by their own ideas and knowledge. For this reason, the same historical events may be interpreted in different ways by various historians depending on their scientific and ideological standings.

The work of historians is to interpret events based on different material evidences and records that have survived over time. Since it is impossible to describe the past exactly as it happened, historians reconstruct it using the various sources they have from that past.

The sources may be material (buildings and objects), written (documents, letters, books, and written artifacts), oral (stories, songs, and testimonies from witnesses), and audiovisual (photographs, images, paintings, sound recordings, videos, and digital archives).

Scientific method of History

In order to conduct academic research, historians follow a scientific method, also known as the "historical method". It involves the following steps:

• Identifying a topic. The topic to be studied is defined, and basic questions are posed regarding when, where, how, and why certain events occurred.
• Formulating hypotheses. Hypotheses are formulated to answer questions concerning the topic. Hypotheses (or assumptions) will be either confirmed or refuted based on research findings.
• Gathering information. Information is gathered for the research. This involves an analysis of the "state of the question", that is, what historians have previously stated about the topic. In addition, primary sources of the subject matter are selected.
• Analyzing information. The various sources of information are correlated and compared, and a thorough study is performed. This process determines the validity of previously formulated hypotheses.
• Drawing conclusions. A written document is produced, detailing the research process and explaining the conclusions reached.
• Disseminating research. The work is made public through conferences, journals, cultural programs, and documentaries, among other ways.

Key concepts of History

Historical study relies on specific concepts and tools:

• Tools to measure time. Among the most widely used tools by historians to measure and order time are chronology and timelines. In addition, they use units of time: millennium (1,000 years), century (100 years), and decade (10 years) to determine when historical events took place. Because of the way historical study developed, the birth of Christ was adopted as the main reference point.
• Change and continuity concepts. Historians identify change, transformation, continuity, and enduring patterns in past societies. Based on this, they define historical time periods with the same broad characteristics, or establish concepts to compare and differentiate societies. For instance, the classic periodization into Ancient history, Middle Ages, Modern Age, and Contemporary history reflects categorizations of social structures and ways of life common across various societies during those time periods.
• Social actors concept. For centuries, historians centered on political events and influential figures to explain historical processes. Since the 20th century, they have expanded their scope to include the different social classes, political groups, and various collective entities as key factors for the interpretation of historical events.

Branches of History

Depending on the specific period of interest, various branches of History can be identified, including:

• Prehistory. It is the study of human distant past, that is, the time before the invention of writing and, therefore, of recorded history.
• Natural History. It is the study of Earth's formation periods and the evolution of plant and animal biological communities prior to the appearance of humans.
• Geohistory. It is the study of specific past societies and the geographic structures that supported and influenced them.
• History of ideas. It is the study of the evolution of human thought, considered broadly, and of the various domains in which it emerged, as well as the possible interpretations of its origin and meaning.
• Universal History. It is the comprehensive study of the past of human societies, spanning from ancient times to the most recent events.
• History of art. It is the study of the various forms of artistic expression developed by humans throughout history and the relationship among them.
• History of religion. It is the study of religious and mystical manifestations throughout human history, examining their relationships, influences, and characteristics.

Auxiliary sciences of History

To better understand the past of human societies, historical study is supplemented by other disciplines, including anthropology, archaeology, architecture, literature, library science, heraldry, linguistics, numismatics, politics, and even philosophy.

The body of knowledge, techniques, and approaches of these disciplines offer a more detailed and interdisciplinary analysis and interpretation of the sources upon which historical studies are built.

History as an academic discipline

History as a science may be approached from:

• Historiography. It is the set of techniques and methods used for reviewing, analyzing, and producing historical content, often subject to the formal requirements of the historical method and the methods of the social sciences. Historiography studies the different schools of thought and analysis of History.
• Historiology. Also known as the "theory of history", it is concerned with explanations and comprehensive methods to deduce how and why certain historical processes occur. It is related to the philosophy of history, and seeks to explain the facts and events of historical reality.

Division of time in History

Periodization is a tool that historians use to organize historical time. It is not an absolute system, as it does not correspond to the past exactly as it happened but rather to the analysis and interpretation historians make of it.

Different periodizations are used depending on the society or historical event in question. Nevertheless, a general periodization is commonly used for the dissemination and broad understanding of the human past. This division typically categorizes history into the following periods:

• Prehistory (before 3000 BC). It refers to the history before the invention of writing. It spans the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic) and the Metal Ages (Copper Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age).
• Ancient history (3000 BC - 476 AD). It encompasses the early stages of human civilization: Classical Antiquity and Late Antiquity.
• Middle Ages (476 - 1492 AD). It covers the time period when Western societies replaced their classical heritage with a theocentric culture (Christian or Islamic). It ended with the transition to the Modern Age.
• Modern Age (1492 - 1789 AD). It marks the end of the Medieval times and the so-called "Dark Ages". This period is characterized by the renaissance of Western European cultures, which spread across the world during this time period.
• Late modern period (from 1789 AD onwards). It covers the most recent events of the past three centuries, during which humanity built a global society and embarked on technological and industrial revolutions.

Origin of History

History as a discipline does not have a clearly defined origin, as it is difficult to determine when humans began recording past events for future generations.

Nevertheless, the Greek Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 - 425 BC) was the first historian and geographer as such.

Debate about History

Much debate exists surrounding the “official” history, upheld by educational institutions and central political powers, often criticized for its ethnocentric view (especially European) and for favoring the narratives of certain social sectors over others. It is commonly said that "history is written by the victors".

The “end of History”

The "End of History" is a theory proposed by Japanese scholar Francis Fukuyama, suggesting that history, understood as a prolonged account of ideological struggles (i.e., attempts to impose one model of humanity over another), ended with the triumph of capitalism over communism and the liberal democracy that emerged after the Cold War in the 20th century. This theory is still contested today.

Explore next: