Trojan War

We explore the Trojan War, its events, and main characters. In addition, we discuss its causes and aftermath.

What was the Trojan War?

The Trojan War is the name given to a major conflict in Greek mythology. It pitted the city of Troy (also known as Ilion), in western Anatolia (Asia Minor), against the principal Achaean kingdoms of ancient Greece and their allies (Danaans and Argives).

Greek historians from the Archaic Period upheld that the Trojan conflict occurred around the 13th or 12th century BC. Some of the events of the Trojan War are narrated in the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, attributed to Homer (8th century BC).

The Trojan War holds significant relevance in Greek epic poetry and the Greco-Roman tradition. For centuries, modern society regarded it as purely mythical. However, in the late 19th century, Heinrich Schliemann led a series of archaeological excavations that unearthed the ruins of several Greek cities from that period, including a site that might be the mythical city of Troy.

Since then, numerous archaeological and historical studies have aimed to prove whether that was indeed the city depicted by Homer.

While most experts agree that the city of Troy really existed, the accounts of the Trojan War contain mythical elements. For this reason, many scholars today set out to distinguish the historical events from the mythological aspects of the narrative.

• See also: Classical antiquity

Location of Troy

Troy was located in western Anatolia, modern-day Turkey, on the Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor.

Nowadays, it corresponds to the archaeological site of Hisarlik mound. Successive excavations have shown that the site was occupied by ten different cities at various periods in history. Most scholars agree that the sixth or seventh of these cities might have been the one mentioned in Homer's works.

Historical context of the Trojan War

The mythical accounts of the Trojan War set the conflict between the 13th and 12th centuries BC, a period dominated by the Mycenaean civilization. The Peloponnesus and Anatolia regions were ruled by various kingdoms settled in fortified cities. These kingdoms were inhabited by Achaeans, Ionians, and Aeolians (of Indo-European origin).

The kingdoms were independent, competing for wealth, territories, political influence, and particularly for control over trade routes, which were essential for the survival of cities. Throughout their history, these kingdoms formed alliances and engaged in warfare. The Trojan War is set in the context of war.

Causes of the Trojan War

According to Greek mythology, the Trojan War was caused by the abduction of the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen, wife of Menelaus, the King of Sparta. During a diplomatic mission by the Trojans, Prince Paris fell in love with her.

One version suggests he seduced her while another claims he abducted her. In either case, Paris took Helen to Troy, with the help of the goddess Aphrodite. Her husband, Menelaus, summoned the kings of the Achaean alliance to bring her back and restore his honor. They all agreed to support him in a war to retrieve her and punish the Trojans.

A less mythological view highlights Troy's importance in the politics and economy of the Eastern Mediterranean coast. Its strategic location controlled access from the Aegean Sea to the Black Sea, giving the Trojans dominance over the trade routes connecting both regions.

How long did the Trojan War last?

According to tradition, the siege of Troy lasted ten years, during which the Achaean troops camped outside the city.

Main characters of the Trojan War

While the Iliad abounds in characters, the main ones in terms of the war narrative are:

• Achilles. "The swift-footed", son of Peleus and king of the Myrmidons. At the beginning of the Iliad, he refuses to fight alongside the Greeks due to an offense by Agamemnon.
• Patroclus. Achilles' best friend and companion in his army. Hector kills him in battle mistaking him for Achilles, as Patroclus wears his armor to inspire the Greek army.
• Agamemnon. Leader of the Achaean expedition, king of Mycenae, and brother of Menelaus.
• Menelaus. King of Sparta and husband of Helen of Troy, he demands the Trojans return her by force of arms.
• Paris. Trojan prince and abductor of Helen, he is favored by Aphrodite.
• Hector. Brother of Paris and the greatest Trojan warrior, he is killed in combat by Achilles, who drags Hector’s body behind his chariot as a sign of scorn.
• Priam and Hecuba. King and queen of Troy and parents of Hector and Paris.
• Odysseus. King of Ithaca and one of the great Greek heroes, he is credited with having devised the Trojan Horse stratagem.
• Ajax. Known as Ajax the Great or Telamonian Ajax (son of Telamon), king of Salamis and Periboea, he is the second greatest Greek hero in strength and valor after Achilles.

Death of Achilles

Achilles was killed during the Trojan War. According to legend, this Greek hero was invulnerable due to his mother, the nymph Thetis. However, his only weak spot was his heels.

He defeated the Trojan hero Hector in fair combat, avenging the death of his friend Patroclus. However, he incurred the wrath of the Trojans and the gods by dragging Hector's body behind his chariot, dishonoring it on the battlefield.

Eventually, his punishment came at the hands of Paris, Hector's brother, who shot an arrow through Achilles' heel. Thus, he killed the great hero and fulfilled the prophecy Thetis had made to her son before he headed for Troy.

Trojan Horse

The legendary stratagem that granted victory to the Greeks is famous: the Trojan Horse. The idea was conceived by Odysseus, the most cunning and ingenious of the Achaean leaders. He proposed building a gigantic wooden horse, inside of which the Greek soldiers would hide.

After building the horse and leaving it on the seashore, the Greeks withdrew their fleet and hid it behind nearby cliffs to simulate surrender, feigning a return to Greece. The Trojans, who worshipped Poseidon (associated with horses), thought it was a Greek offering to the god to ensure a safe return home.

Rejoicing in their apparent victory, they brought the horse inside the massive, impenetrable city walls as a tribute to their patron deity. Once inside, the hidden soldiers waited until nightfall, when they exited their hiding place, and opened the city gates. In this way, the Greek army managed to sack and defeat Troy.

What did the victors gain?

The Trojan War was won by the invading army, thanks to the Trojan Horse stratagem. During the night, the city was invaded, looted, and destroyed; Trojan men and boys were massacred, and women were taken as slaves. Nothing was left of the ancient Asian city.

The soldiers divided the spoils of the sacking, and their primary goal of reclaiming Helen was achieved. However, while the Greek armies returned home victorious, they paid an extremely high cost in human lives.

Consequences of the Trojan War

The consequences of the Trojan War were:

• The defeat of Troy and its complete destruction at the hands of the Achaeans.
• The murder of King Priam and all the Trojan nobility, as well as the enslavement of their women.
• The loss of countless lives on both sides, including great Greek heroes like Achilles and Ajax, and Trojan heroes like Hector and Paris.
• The beginning of Odysseus's long journey home (as recounted in the Odyssey).
• The start of Aeneas's journey and the few survivors in the Trojan quest that would eventually lead to the founding of Rome (as narrated in the Aeneid).

Sources of the Trojan War

The primary sources of the Trojan War are Homer's epic poems, and excerpts from accounts by subsequent Greek writers that have come down to us:

Homeric hymns

Homeric hymns are a collection of epic narrations traditionally attributed to Homer (8th century BC poet). Today, scholars consider the Homeric hymns to be the work of more than a single author, written at different time periods. Despite the debate among experts, the epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey are regarded as the primary source to understand the events of the Trojan War. Although both poems narrate 13th century BC events, scholars suggest that the world they describe reflects that of the 8th century BC.

• Iliad. It centers on the tenth year of the war, recounting the Achaean armies' expedition to Asia Minor under Agamemnon's leadership to conquer the city of Troy. It narrates the events triggered by Achilles’ withdrawal from battle.
• Odyssey. It recounts the adventures of Odysseus (also known as Ulysses), an important hero of the Trojan war, during his journey back to his homeland.

Excerpts from ancient Greek literature (7th and 6th centuries BC)

Other poems of ancient Greek literature complete the account of the Trojan cycle. However, only excerpts or abridged copies of the works as recounted by ancient historians have survived:

• Cypria. It narrates the entire Trojan cycle preceding Homeric accounts.
• Aethiopis. It chronicles Achilles' final exploits, covering the events following Homer's Iliad.
• Little Iliad. It offers a detailed account of the story of the wooden horse.
• Iliupersis. It recounts the fall of Troy.
• Telegony. It tells the story of Telegonus in search of his father, Odysseus.

Works on Troy from classical Greek literature (5th and 4th centuries BC) onward

The Trojan War and its aftermath were a central theme in numerous works from the Classical Period in Ancient Greece, or Hellenistic Period:

• Oresteia by Aeschylus.
• Ajax, Electra, and Philoctetes by Sophocles.
• Iphigenia in Aulis, Andromache, Hecuba, The Trojan Women, Electra, Helen, Orestes, and Rhesus by Euripides.
• Posthomerica by Quintus of Smyrna (3rd century AD).

The Trojan War on film

The Trojan War has been portrayed on film on numerous occasions. Although it is a mythical story, it is rooted in real events. Different directors have approached the narrative with varying degrees of creative freedom.

The cinema has drawn inspiration not only from Homer's Iliad and Odyssey,but also from other sources to enrich their portrayal. Some of the most iconic films exploring the Trojan theme include:

• Ulysses (Mario Camerini, 1954)
• Helen of Troy (Robert Wise, 1955)
• The Trojan Horse (Giorgio Ferroni, 1961)
• Fury of achilles (Marino Girolami, 1962)
• The Adventures of Ulysses (Franco Rossi, 1968)
• The Odyssey (Andrei Konchalowsi, 1997)
• Helen of Troy (John Kent Harrison, 2003)
• Troy (Wolfgang Petersen, 2004)

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